Skip to main navigation menu Skip to main content Skip to site footer

Saggi, Studi e Ricerche

No. 53 (2020)

Substance Use and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A particular comorbidity.

DOI
https://doi.org/10.3280/mis53-2020oa9196
Submitted
febbraio 12, 2020
Published
2020-05-21

Abstract

Psychiatric comorbidities are frequently found in patients with Substance Use Disorder (SUD). Although in the literature Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most frequent comorbidities with SUD, it appears poorly diagnosed in the clinical settings. Various researches show that about a third of patients with ADHD also suffer from an Addiction Disorder.

In addressing subjects affected by this comorbidity, it is important to underline the relevance of the clinical assessment in order to identify symptoms that frequently appear similar and which make treatment more complex. An accurate assessment must consider the influence of the substance use on cognitive functions. This effect influences the course of ADHD worsening the retention rate and the outcome.

The treatment of this comorbidity requires multiple therapeutic strategies, including pharmacological, psychological and socio-educational interventions. Pharmacological therapies and the risks of their misuse has to be particularly considered. Thus, to provide an effective treatment it is necessary to build a highly integrated setting in which specific interventions are delivered simultaneously.

References

  1. (1) Deberdt W. et al. (2015). Prevalence of ADHD in nonpsychotic adult psychiatric care (ADPSYC): A multinational cross-sectional study in Europe. BMC Psychiatry, 15: 242.
  2. (2) Fayyad J. et al. (2007). Cross-national prevalence and correlates of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry J. Ment. Sci., 190: 402-409.
  3. (3) Gould T.J. (2010). Addiction and cognition. Addict. Sci. Clin. Pract., 5: 4-14.
  4. (4) Juárez C., Molina-Jiménez T., Morin J.-P., Roldán-Roldán G., Zepeda R. (2018). Influence of Drugs on Cognitive Functions. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.71842.
  5. (5) Wilens T.E. (2004). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and the substance use disorders: the nature of the relationship, subtypes at risk, and treatment issues. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am., 27: 283-301.
  6. (6) Wilens T.E., Morrison N.R. (2012). Substance-use disorders in adolescents and adults with ADHD: focus on treatment. Neuropsychiatry, 2: 301-312.
  7. (7) van de Glind G. et al. (2014). Variability in the prevalence of adult ADHD in treatment seeking substance use disorder patients: results from an international multi-center study exploring DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria. Drug Alcohol Depend., 134: 158-166.
  8. (8) Lee S.S., Humphreys K.L., Flory K., Liu R., Glass K. (2011). Prospective association of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and substance use and abuse/dependence: a meta-analytic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev., 31: 328-341.
  9. (9) Charach A., Yeung E., Climans T., Lillie E. (2011). Childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and future substance use disorders: comparative meta-analyses. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry, 50: 9-21.
  10. (10) Wilens T.E., Morrison N.R. (2011). The intersection of attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry, 24: 280-285.
  11. (11) Frodl T. (2010). Comorbidity of ADHD and Substance Use Disorder (SUD): a neuroimaging perspective. J. Atten. Disord., 14: 109-120.
  12. (12) Khantzian E.J. (2013). Addiction as a self-regulation disorder and the role of self-medication. Addict. Abingdon Engl., 108: 668-669.
  13. (13) Zulauf C.A., Sprich S.E., Safren S.A., Wilens T.E. (2014). The complicated relationship between attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and substance use disorders. Curr. Psychiatry Rep., 16: 436.
  14. (14) Mariani J.J., Khantzian E.J., Levin F.R. (2014). The self-medication hypothesis and psychostimulant treatment of cocaine dependence: an update. Am. J. Addict., 23: 189-193.
  15. (15) Van Meer R. (2014). Stimulant substitution in methamphetamine dependence from the perspective of adult ADHD. Aust. N.Z.J. Psychiatry, 48: 95-96.
  16. (16) Peles E., Schreiber S., Linzy S., Domani Y., Adelson M. (2015). Differences in methylphenidate abuse rates among methadone maintenance treatment patients in two clinics. J. Subst. Abuse Treat., 54: 44-49.
  17. (17) Harstad E., Levy S. (2014). Committee on Substance Abuse. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse. Pediatrics, 134: e293-301.
  18. (18) Evren B., Evren C., Dalbudak E., Topcu M., Kutlu N. (2018). Relationship of internet addiction severity with probable ADHD and difficulties in emotion regulation among young adults. Psychiatry Res., 269: 494-500.
  19. (19) De Alwis D., Lynskey M.T., Reiersen A.M., Agrawal A. (2014). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder subtypes and substance use and use disorders in NESARC. Addict. Behav., 39: 1278-1285.
  20. (20) Liebrenz M., Gamma A., Ivanov I., Buadze A., Eich D. (2015). Adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Associations between subtype and lifetime substance use - a clinical study. F1000Research, 4: 407.
  21. (21) Marx I., Hacker T., Yu X., Cortese S., Sonuga-Barke E. (2018). ADHD and the Choice of Small Immediate Over Larger Delayed Rewards: A Comparative Meta-Analysis of Performance on Simple Choice-Delay and Temporal Discounting Paradigms. J. Atten. Disord. 1087054718772138. doi: 10.1177/1087054718772138.
  22. (22) Gudjonsson G.H., Sigurdsson J.F., Sigfusdottir I.D., Young S. (2012). An epidemiological study of ADHD symptoms among young persons and the relationship with cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption and illicit drug use. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry, 53: 304-312.
  23. (23) Serra-Pinheiro M.A. et al. (2013). Is ADHD a risk factor independent of conduct disorder for illicit substance use? A metaanalysis and metaregression investigation. J. Atten. Disord., 17: 459-469.
  24. (24) Biederman J. et al. (1997). Conduct disorder with and without mania in a referred sample of ADHD children. J. Affect. Disord., 44: 177-188.
  25. (25) Live fast, die young? A review on the developmental trajectories of ADHD across the lifespan. - PubMed - NCBI. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30195575.
  26. (26) Arias A.J. et al. (2008). Correlates of co-occurring ADHD in drugdependent subjects: prevalence and features of substance dependence and psychiatric disorders. Addict. Behav., 33: 1199-1207.
  27. (27) Johann M., Bobbe G., Putzhammer A., Wodarz N. (2003). Comorbidity of alcohol dependence with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: differences in phenotype with increased severity of the substance disorder, but not in genotype (serotonin transporter and 5-hydroxytryptamine-2c receptor). Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res., 27: 1527-1534.
  28. (28) Riggs P.D. (1998). Clinical approach to treatment of ADHD in adolescents with substance use disorders and conduct disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry, 37: 331-332.
  29. (29) Biederman J. et al. (1995). Psychoactive substance use disorders in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): effects of ADHD and psychiatric comorbidity. Am. J. Psychiatry, 152: 1652-1658.
  30. (30) Biederman J., Wilens T.E., Mick E., Faraone S.V., Spencer T. (1998). Does attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder impact the developmental course of drug and alcohol abuse and dependence? Biol. Psychiatry, 44: 269-273.
  31. (31) Wilens T.E., Fusillo S. (2007). When ADHD and substance use disorders intersect: relationship and treatment implications. Curr. Psychiatry Rep., 9: 408-414.
  32. (32) Ilomäki R. et al. (2008). Drug-dependent boys are more depressed compared to girls: a comorbidity study of substance dependence and mental disorders. Eur. Addict. Res., 14: 161-168.
  33. (33) CDC (2018). ADHD Treatment Recommendations | CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/guidelines.html.
  34. (34) Rogers R.D., Robbins T.W. (2001). Investigating the neurocognitive deficits associated with chronic drug misuse. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol., 11: 250-257.
  35. (35) Vik P.W., Cellucci T., Jarchow A., Hedt J. (2004). Cognitive impairment in substance abuse. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am., 27: 97-109, ix.
  36. (36) Mariani J.J., Levin F.R. (2007). Treatment strategies for co-occurring ADHD and substance use disorders. Am. J. Addict., 16, Suppl 1: 45-54; quiz 55-56.
  37. (37) NIDA. Treatment Approaches for Drug Addiction. Drugabuse.com www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/treatment-approachesdrug-addiction.
  38. (38) Kang N.R., Kwack Y.S. (2019). Temperament and Character Profiles Associated with Internalizing and Externalizing Problems in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychiatry Investig., 16: 206-212.
  39. (39) Kooij J.J.S. (2013). Adult ADHD: Diagnostic Assessment and Treatment. Springer-Verlag.
  40. (40) Chiasson J.-P. et al. (2012). Questioning the specificity of ASRSv1.1 to accurately detect ADHD in substance abusing populations. J. Atten. Disord., 16: 661-663.
  41. (41) Kessler R.C. et al. (2005). The World Health Organization Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS): a short screening scale for use in the general population. Psychol. Med., 35: 245-256.
  42. (42) Daigre Blanco C. et al. (2009). Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS-v1.1) symptom checklist in patients with substance use disorders. Actas Esp. Psiquiatr., 37, 299-305.
  43. (43) Pedrero Pérez E.J., Puerta García C. (2007) [ASRS v.1.1., a tool for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder screening in adults treated for addictive behaviors: psychometric properties and estimated prevalence]. Adicciones, 19: 393-407.
  44. (44) Adler L.A., Guida F., Irons S., Rotrosen J., O’Donnell K. (2009). Screening and imputed prevalence of ADHD in adult patients with comorbid substance use disorder at a residential treatment facility. Postgrad. Med., 121: 7-10.
  45. (45) Park C.-B. et al. (2015). The effect of repeated exposure to virtual gambling cues on the urge to gamble. Addict. Behav., 41: 61-64.
  46. (46) CADDRA Guidelines (2018). Can. ADHD Pract. Guidel., 4th Edition.
  47. (47) Wilens T.E., Upadhyaya H.P. (2007). Impact of substance use disorder on ADHD and its treatment. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 68: e20.
  48. (48) Austin A.M., Macgowan M.J., Wagner E.F. (2005). Effective Family-Based Interventions for Adolescents With Substance Use Problems: A Systematic Review. Res. Soc. Work Pract., 15: 67-83.
  49. (49) Waldron H.B., Turner C.W. (2008). Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for adolescent substance abuse. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. Off. J. Soc. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. Am. Psychol. Assoc. Div., 53, 37: 238-261.
  50. (50) Antshel K.M., Faraone S.V., Gordon M. (2014). Cognitive behavioral treatment outcomes in adolescent ADHD. J. Atten. Disord., 18: 483-495.
  51. (51) Emilsson B. et al. (2011). Cognitive behaviour therapy in medication-treated adults with ADHD and persistent symptoms: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry, 11: 116.
  52. (52) Carroll K.M. et al. (1994). Psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy for ambulatory cocaine abusers. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 51: 177-187.
  53. (53) Dennis M. et al. (2004). The Cannabis Youth Treatment (CYT) Study: main findings from two randomized trials. J. Subst. Abuse Treat., 27: 197-213.
  54. (54) Kaminer Y., Burleson J.A., Blitz C., Sussman J., Rounsaville B.J. (1998). Psychotherapies for adolescent substance abusers: a pilot study. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 186: 684-690.
  55. (55) Levin F.R. et al. (2018). How treatment improvement in ADHD and cocaine dependence are related to one another: A secondary analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend., 188: 135-140.
  56. (56) Cortese S. et al. (2018). Comparative efficacy and tolerability of medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children, adolescents, and adults: a systematic review and network metaanalysis. Lancet Psychiatry, 5: 727-738.
  57. (57) Heal D.J., Smith S.L., Findling R.L. (2012). ADHD: current and future therapeutics. Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci., 9: 361-390.
  58. (58) Fredriksen M., Peleikis D.E. (2016). Long-Term Pharmacotherapy of Adults With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Literature Review and Clinical Study. Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 118: 23-31.
  59. (59) Matthijssen A.-F.M. et al. (2019). Continued Benefits of Methylphenidate in ADHD After 2 Years in Clinical Practice: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Discontinuation Study. Am. J. Psychiatry, 176: 754-762.
  60. (60) Wong I.C.K. et al. (2019). Emerging challenges in pharmacotherapy research on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder - outcome measures beyond symptom control and clinical trials. Lancet Psychiatry, 6: 528-537.
  61. (61) Katusic S.K. et al. (2005). Psychostimulant treatment and risk for substance abuse among young adults with a history of attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder: a population-based, birth cohort study. J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol., 15: 764-776.
  62. (62) Hammerness P., Petty C., Faraone S.V., Biederman J. (2017). Do Stimulants Reduce the Risk for Alcohol and Substance Use in Youth With ADHD? A Secondary Analysis of a Prospective, 24-Month Open-Label Study of Osmotic-Release Methylphenidate. J. Atten. Disord., 21: 71-77.
  63. (63) Chang Z. et al. (2014). Stimulant ADHD medication and risk for substance abuse. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry, 55: 878-885.
  64. (64) Carpentier P.-J., Levin F.R. (2017). Pharmacological Treatment of ADHD in Addicted Patients: What Does the Literature Tell Us? Harv. Rev. Psychiatry, 25: 50-64.
  65. (65) Levin F.R. et al. (2015). Extended-Release Mixed Amphetamine Salts vs Placebo for Comorbid Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Cocaine Use Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 72: 593-602.
  66. (66) Perugi G., Pallucchini A., Rizzato S., Pinzone V., De Rossi P. (2019). Current and emerging pharmacotherapy for the treatment of adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Expert Opin. Pharmacother.: 1-14. doi: 10.1080/14656566.2019.1618270.
  67. (67) Upadhyay N., Chen H., Mgbere O., Bhatara V.S., Aparasu R.R. (2017). The Impact of Pharmacotherapy on Substance Use in Adolescents With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Variations Across Subtypes. Subst. Use Misuse, 52: 1266-1274.
  68. (68) Wilens T.E. et al. (2008). Atomoxetine treatment of adults with ADHD and comorbid alcohol use disorders. Drug Alcohol Depend., 96: 145-154.
  69. (69) Outram S.M. (2010). The use of methylphenidate among students: the future of enhancement? J. Med. Ethics, 36: 198-202.
  70. (70) Urban K.R., Gao W.-J. (2017). Psychostimulants As Cognitive Enhancers in Adolescents: More Risk than Reward? Front. Public Health, 5.
  71. (71) Bjerkeli P.J., Vicente R.P., Mulinari S., Johnell K., Merlo J. (2018). Overuse of methylphenidate: an analysis of Swedish pharmacy dispensing data. Clin. Epidemiol., 10: 1657-1665.
  72. (72) Winhusen T.M. et al. (2011). Subjective effects, misuse, and adverse effects of osmotic-release methylphenidate treatment in adolescent substance abusers with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol., 21: 455-463.
  73. (73) Cortese S., D’Acunto G., Konofal E., Masi G., Vitiello B. (2017). New Formulations of Methylphenidate for the Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Pharmacokinetics, Efficacy, and Tolerability. CNS Drugs, 31: 149-160.
  74. (74) Fredriksen M., Halmøy A., Faraone S.V., Haavik J. (2013). Longterm efficacy and safety of treatment with stimulants and atomoxetine in adult ADHD: A review of controlled and naturalistic studies. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol., 23: 508-527.
  75. (75) Walker D.J., Mason O., Clemow D.B., Day K.A. (2015). Atomoxetine treatment in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Postgrad. Med., 127: 686-701.
  76. (76) Buitelaar J. et al. (2015). Differences in maintenance of response upon discontinuation across medication treatments in attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. J. Eur. Coll. Neuropsychopharmacol., 25: 1611-1621.
  77. (77) Upadhyaya H.P. et al. (2013). A review of the abuse potential assessment of atomoxetine: a nonstimulant medication for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl.), 226: 189-200.
  78. (78) Clemow D.B., Bushe C., Mancini M., Ossipov M.H., Upadhyaya H. (2017). A review of the efficacy of atomoxetine in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adult patients with common comorbidities. Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat., 13: 357-371.
  79. (79) McRae-Clark A.L. et al. (2010). A placebo-controlled trial of atomoxetine in marijuana-dependent individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Addict., 19: 481-489.
  80. (80) Thurstone C., Riggs P.D., Salomonsen-Sautel S., Mikulich-Gilbertson S.K. (2010). Randomized, controlled trial of atomoxetine for ADHD in adolescents with substance use disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry, 49: 573-582.
  81. (81) Atti Regione Lombardia, Legge Regionale R15-2016-1.pdf.

Metrics

Metrics Loading ...