Salta al menu principale di navigazione Salta al contenuto principale Salta al piè di pagina del sito
Ricerche di Psicologia/Psychological Research Journal - Open Access

Articoli

N. 2 (2025)

A study on the intervention of positive discipline on parenting self-efficacy and subjective well-being among Chinese parents

DOI
https://doi.org/10.3280/rip2025oa21742
Inviata
19 dicembre 2025
Pubblicato
12-02-2026

Abstract

Background: In contemporary China, parenting is characterized by high stress and authoritarian practices, leading to negative impacts on self-efficacy and well-being. Positive Discipline provides an alternative to improve family dynamics that is more in harmony with Chinese culture. The positive discipline method is appropriate for the Chinese culture owing to its focus on self-discipline and high academic achievement. The idea of positive discipline in recent years has emerged as a new effective positive parenting approach supporting both kind and firm parenting styles, contributing positively to child development.

Aim: This study examines the impact of Positive Discipline on self-efficacy and subjective wellness of Chinese parents, focusing on culturally responsive psychological interventions.

Methodology: A six-week quasi-experimental intervention with 62 parents from Fujian Province, China, utilised the validated Subjective Well-being Scale and the brief-parental-self-efficacy-scale-interactive. Data was analysed quantitatively through SPSS pre- and post-intervention by analysing the two variables self-efficacy and well-being.

Results: Parents reported improved parenting self-efficacy, increased subjective well-being, therefore, a reduced stress post-intervention. There was a strong correlation showing the efficacy of the intervention in ensuring parental well-being in promoting a sense of parenting efficacy and subjective well-being.

Conclusion: Positive Discipline nurtures self-efficacy in parenting and psychological well-being among Chinese parents. This would empower the parents to adopt a modern parenting style in Chinese society and adapt to the current parenting pressure. Incorporating PD into family support services might reduce parenting stress and improve emotional health.

Riferimenti bibliografici

  1. Alaçam, N. (2015). Parent involvement self-efficacy beliefs of pre-service early childhood teachers with respect to general self-efficacy beliefs and perceived barriers about parent involvement [Master’s Thesis, Middle East Technical University (Turkey)]. https://search.proquest.com/openview/b915979bd3fb102 e2d4c73fb8e96c4ee/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2026366&diss=y.
  2. anbound.com (n.d). China’s Seventh National Population Census and Its Implications. Retrieved 26 March 2025, from http://www.anbound.com/Section/ ArticalView2.php?Rnumber=18341&SectionID=1.
  3. Apaydın, S. (2022). The effect of positive discipline parenting program on parental disciplinary practices, parenting stress and parenting self-efficacy [PhD Thesis, Middle East Technical University (Turkey)]. https://search.proquest.com/ openview/81cc59d4ade53d953b48a550e700ff3d/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2026366&diss=y.
  4. Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1): 1-26.
  5. Bandura, A., Freeman, W. H., & Lightsey, R. (1999). Self-Efficacy: the exercise of control. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 13(2): 158-166. Doi: 10.1891/0889-8391.13.2.15.
  6. Bonate, P. L. (2000). Analysis of pretest-posttest designs. Chapman and Hall/CRC. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9781420035926/analysis-pretest-posttest-designs-peter-bonate.
  7. Boruszak-Kiziukiewicz, J., & Kmita, G. (2020). Parenting self-efficacy in immigrant families ‒ A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 985.
  8. Chao, R. K. (1994). Beyond parental control and authoritarian parenting style: Understanding Chinese parenting through the cultural notion of training. Child Development, 65(4), 1111. Doi: 10.2307/1131308.
  9. Chen, G., Oubibi, M., Liang, A., & Zhou, Y. (2022). Parents’ Educational Anxiety Under the “Double Reduction” Policy Based on the Family and Students’ Personal Factors. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 15: 2067-2082. Doi: 10.2147/PRBM.S370339.
  10. Coleman, P. K., & Karraker, K. H. (1998). Self-Efficacy and Parenting Quality: Findings and Future applications. Developmental Review, 18(1): 47-85. Doi: 10.1006/drev.1997.0448.
  11. Cook, T. D., Campbell, D. T., & Day, A. (1979). Quasi-experimentation: Design & analysis issues for field settings (Vol. 351). Houghton Mifflin Boston. https://dickyh.staff.ugm.ac.id/wp/wp-content/uploads/2009/ringkasan%20bu ku%20quasi-experimentakhir.pdf.
  12. corc.uk.net (n.da). Brief-parental-self-efficacy-scale-interactive-pdf. Retrieved 27 March 2025, from https://www.corc.uk.net/media/2607/brief-parental-self-efficacy-scale-interactive-pdf.pdf.
  13. corc.uk.net (n.db). Parent-stress-scale-fillable-pdf. Retrieved 27 March 2025, from https://www.corc.uk.net/media/2764/parent-stress-scale-fillable-pdf.pdf.
  14. Craig, L., & Churchill, B. (2018). Parenting Stress and the Use of Formal and Informal Child Care: Associations for Fathers and Mothers. Journal of Family Issues, 39(12): 3203-3224. Doi: 10.1177/0192513X18776419.
  15. Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3): 542-575. Doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542.
  16. Dong, S., & Rao, N. (2023). Associations between parental well-being and early learning at home before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: Observations from the China Family Panel Studies. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1163009.
  17. Du, S. (2022). Parenting styles and youth outcomes in contemporary China. The University of Manchester (United Kingdom). https://search.proquest.com/openview/e310139f44281ebffa97078caaa5a1ca/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl= 51922&diss=y.
  18. Durrant, R. (2013). An introduction to criminal psychology. In: Routledge eBooks. Doi: 10.4324/9780203101278.
  19. Durrant, J. E. (2016). Positive discipline in everday parenting (4th ed). Canadian Association of Family Resource Programs.
  20. Estiningsih, D., Laksana, S. D., Syam, A. R., & Ariyanto, A. (2022). Application of Positive Discipline in Children to Reduce Parenting Stress During Pandemic. 3rd Borobudur International Symposium on Humanities and Social Science 2021 (BIS-HSS 2021), 972-980. https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/bis-hss-21/125982542.
  21. Fatima, H., Zhao, S., Yue, A., Li, S., & Shi, Y. (2022). Parental discipline and early childhood development in rural China. Sustainability, 14(4), 1988.
  22. Feng, E. (2021). China’s Former 1-Child Policy Continues To Haunt Families. npr. https://www.npr.org/2021/06/21/1008656293/the-legacy-of-the-lasting-effects-of-chinas-1-child-policy.
  23. Gallitto, E. (2021). Evaluation of the Positive Discipline in Everyday Parenting Program [PhD Thesis, Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa]. https://library-archives.canada.ca/eng/services/services-libraries/theses/Pages/ item.aspx?idNumber=1294013406.
  24. Gershoff, E. T., Goodman, G. S., Miller-Perrin, C. L., Holden, G. W., Jackson, Y., & Kazdin, A. E. (2018). The strength of the causal evidence against physical punishment of children and its implications for parents, psychologists, and policymakers. American Psychologist, 73(5): 626-638. Doi: 10.1037/amp0000327.
  25. Glatz, T., & Buchanan, C. M. (2015). Over-time associations among parental self-efficacy, promotive parenting practices, and adolescents’ externalizing behaviors. Journal of Family Psychology, 29(3), 427.
  26. Glowiak, M., & Mayfield, M. A. (2016). Middle Childhood: Emotional and Social Development. In: D. Capuzzi & M. D. Stauffer (Eds.). Human Growth and Development Across the Lifespan (1st ed., pp. 277-306). Wiley. Doi: 10.1002/9781394258925.ch10.
  27. Goodman, S. H., Simon, H., McCarthy, L., Ziegler, J., & Ceballos, A. (2022). Testing Models of Associations Between Depression and Parenting Self-efficacy in Mothers: A Meta-analytic Review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 25(3): 471-499. Doi: 10.1007/s10567-022-00398-0.
  28. Greene, R. L., Field, C. E., Fargo, J. D., & Twohig, M. P. (2015). Development and validation of the parental acceptance questionnaire (6-PAQ). Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 4(3): 170-175. Doi: 10.1016/j.jcbs.2015.05.003.
  29. Hoff, E., & Laursen, B. (2019). Socioeconomic status and parenting. In: Handbook of parenting (pp. 421-447). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780429401459-13/socioeconomic-status-parenting-erika-hoff-brett-laursen.
  30. Jiang, D., Zhang, H., Liu, K., Mignone, J., & Pepler, D. J. (2023). Parents’ Self-Efficacy and Children’s Behavioral Problems Before and After SNAP: A Community-Based Intervention Program. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 32(2): 451-465. Doi: 10.1007/s10826-022-02463-2.
  31. Jones, T. L., & Prinz, R. J. (2005). Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent and child adjustment: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 25(3): 341-363. Doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2004.12.004.
  32. Lan, X., Scrimin, S., & Moscardino, U. (2019). Perceived parental guan and school adjustment among Chinese early adolescents: The moderating role of interdependent self‐construal. Journal of Adolescence, 71(1): 18-27. Doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.12.003.
  33. Lanjekar, P. D., Joshi, S. H., Lanjekar, P. D., & Wagh, V. (2022). The Effect of Parenting and the Parent-Child Relationship on a Child’s Cognitive Development: a literature review. Cureus. Doi: 10.7759/cureus.30574.
  34. Liu, J., Liu, X., & Ding, M. (2024). The impact of a positive discipline group intervention on parenting self-efficacy among mothers of young children. Frontiers in Public Health, 12. Doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1461435.
  35. Liu, Q., Hong, X., & Wang, M. (2022). Parental educational anxiety during children’s transition to primary school in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(23), 15479.
  36. Kawamoto, T., Ura, M., & Hiraki, K. (2016). Curious people are less affected by social rejection. Personality and Individual Differences, 105: 264-267. Doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.10.006.
  37. Ma, Y., Zhang, Q., & Huang, L. (2023). Spatial distribution characteristics and influencing factors of traditional villages in Fujian Province, China. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 10(1): 1-17.
  38. Mascheroni, G., Ponte, C., & Jorge, A. (2018). Digital parenting: The challenges for families in the digital age, yearbook 2018. Nordicom, University of Gothenburg. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:1265024.
  39. Nelsen, J. (2006). Positive discipline. Ballantine Books.
  40. Remand and Kamae Girls Borstal Institutions, Nairobi County Paul Ng’ang’a Namu, Social Sciences, Counseling Psychology (Mcp) [PhD Thesis, University of Nairobi]. https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/162440.
  41. Neece, C. L., Green, S. A., & Baker, B. L. (2012). Parenting stress and child behavior problems: A transactional relationship across time. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 117(1): 48-66.
  42. Nelsen, J., & Lott, L. (2017). Teaching Parenting the Positive Discipline Way. Empowering People, Incorporated.
  43. Odgers, C. L., Schueller, S. M., & Ito, M. (2020). Screen Time, Social Media Use, and Adolescent Development. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 2(1): 485-502. Doi: 10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-084815.
  44. Oliveira, T. D., Costa, D. de S., Albuquerque, M. R., Malloy-Diniz, L. F., Miranda, D. M., & de Paula, J. J. (2018). Cross-cultural adaptation, validity, and reliability of the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire-Short Version (PSDQ) for use in Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry, 40: 410-419.
  45. Pinquart, M., & Kauser, R. (2018). Do the associations of parenting styles with behavior problems and academic achievement vary by culture? Results from a meta-analysis. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 24(1), 75.
  46. Rice, M. F., & Ortiz, K. R. (2021). Parents’ Use of Digital Literacies to Support Their Children with Disabilities in Online Learning Environments. Online Learning, 25(3): 208-229.
  47. Rothbaum, F., Rosen, K., Ujiie, T., & Uchida, N. (2002). Family Systems Theory, Attachment Theory, and Culture*. Family Process, 41(3): 328-350. Doi: 10.1111/j.1545-5300.2002.41305.x.
  48. Satrio, P., Wu, L., Cheng, C., Qian, K., Ho, Y. M., & Prihadi, K. D. (2023). Parenting style and students’ happiness in China. Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn), 18(1): 185-193. Doi: 10.11591/edulearn.v18i1.20878.
  49. Siegel, D. J., Bryson, T. P., Mind Your Brain, Inc., & Bryson Creative Productions, Inc. (2014). No-drama discipline : the whole-brain way to calm the chaos and nurture your child’s developing mind (By Library of Congress). http://livre2.com/LIVREE/E1/E001014.pdf.
  50. Shin, J. Y., Rheu, M., Huh-Yoo, J., & Peng, W. (2021). Designing Technologies to Support Parent-Child Relationships: A review of current findings and suggestions for future directions. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 5(CSCW2), 1-31. Doi: 10.1145/3479585.
  51. Spinelli, M., Lionetti, F., Setti, A., & Fasolo, M. (2021). Parenting Stress During the COVID‐19 Outbreak: Socioeconomic and Environmental Risk Factors and Implications for Children Emotion Regulation. Family Process, 60(2): 639-653. Doi: 10.1111/famp.12601.
  52. Straus, M. A., & Stewart, J. H. (1999). Corporal punishment by American parents: national data on prevalence, chronicity, severity, and duration, in relation to child and family characteristics. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 2(2): 55-70. Doi: 10.1023/a:1021891529770.
  53. Tekyi-Arhin, O. (2024). (PDF) Understanding Positive Discipline. ResearchGate. Doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.27314.21448.
  54. Teng, Y.-P. T., Kuo, L. T.-W., & Zhou, Q. (2018). Maternal Employment and Family Socioeconomic Status: Unique Relations to Maternal Stress, Parenting Beliefs, and Preschoolers’ Adjustment in Taiwanese Families. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(11): 3506-3519. Doi: 10.1007/s10826-018-1173-6.
  55. Witkowski, L. (2017). The Mother’s Experience: A Phenomenological Study of Maternal Self-Efficacy Among Mothers Attending Outpatient Treatment for Substance Abuse. St. Mary’s University (Texas). -- https://search.proquest.com/openview/9e2f291739da1417f849792829a3255b/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750.
  56. Wu, K., Wang, F., Wang, W., & Li, Y. (2022). Parents’ education anxiety and children’s academic burnout: The role of parental burnout and family function. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 764824.
  57. Xu, Y., Farver, J. a. M., & Zhang, Z. (2009). Temperament, harsh and indulgent parenting, and Chinese children’s proactive and reactive aggression. Child Development, 80(1): 244-258. Doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01257.x.
  58. Zhu, F., & Zhou, H. (2022). Perceived parental care and next-generation family members’ succession intentions: The sequential-mediating role of general self-efficacy and perceived person-job fit. Management and Organization Review, 18(2): 319-357.