Salta al menu principale di navigazione Salta al contenuto principale Salta al piè di pagina del sito
FrancoAngeli Journals

Sustainability Governance: Legal, Economic, and Institutional Mechanisms

N. 2 Thematic Issue (2025): Thematic Issue Sustainability Governance: Legal, Economic, and Institutional Mechanisms, Guest Editors: Karlis Ketners, Vitalii Kotsur

Economic Cooperation and Sustainable Development: Kazakhstan and China’s Confidence-Building Measures

DOI
https://doi.org/10.3280/riss2025oa21041
Inviata
settembre 19, 2025
Pubblicato
2025-12-30

Abstract

This study aimed to analyse institutional and diplomatic approaches to confidence-building measures in Kazakhstan and China, with a particular emphasis on assessing their impact on regional security and the sustainability of bilateral relations. The research employed methods such as comparative analysis of foreign policy strategies, content analysis of official documents, and an examination of integration processes within the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), and the Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA). The role of China as a leading economic and geopolitical player in Central Asia was analysed, focusing on its strategy of infrastructure project diplomacy and the use of economic influence mechanisms within the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Key challenges identified in the study include border demarcation, water management, Kazakhstan's growing economic dependence on Chinese investment, and the necessity to balance economic benefits with the preservation of strategic autonomy. The study underscores the importance of sustainable development in fostering long-term regional stability and cooperation.

Riferimenti bibliografici

  1. Abikenov, A., Idrysheva, S.K., Zharbolova, A.Z., Apakhayev, N., Buribayev, Y.A., Khamzina, Z.A. (2019). The problems of effectiveness and implementation of the international legal norms of the states of the Eurasian economic union (EAEU). Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences, 13(1), 175-181.
  2. Abykeeva-Sultanalieva, T., Atakhanov, A., Karabalaeva, G., Korchueva, S., Talgarbekova, E. (2022). The Impact of Various Factors on the Sustainable Development of Kyrgyzstan in Modern Times. Review of Economics and Finance, 20, 1134-1140. Doi: 10.55365/1923.x2022.20.127.
  3. Adamkulova, Ch., Akylbekova, N., Omurova, S., Mambetova, A., Mambetkazieva, N. (2025). Digital farming platforms as a tool for strengthening cooperation between Kyrgyzstan and China: Potential and prospects. Ekonomika APK, 32(2), 63-75. Doi: 10.32317/ekon.apk/2.2025.63.
  4. Al-Fadhat, F., Prasetio, H. (2024). How China’s debt-trap diplomacy works in African countries: Evidence from Zimbabwe, Cameroon, and Djibouti. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 59(5), 1463-1483.
  5. Azizi, S. (2024). China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): The role of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) in geopolitical security and economic cooperation. Open Journal of Political Science, 14(1), 111-129. Doi: 10.4236/ojps.2024.141007.
  6. Baisalbek, O.A., Nurdavletova, L.M., Kukeyeva, F.T. (2024). Analysis of the prospects for cooperation between the CICA and the SCO in ensuring Asian security. Bulletin of L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University. Political Science. Regional Studies. Oriental Studies. Turkology Series, 149(4), 50-69.
  7. Belt and Road Portal (2017a). Full text of the Joint Statement of the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of Kazakhstan. -- https://rus.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/p/37242.html.
  8. Belt and Road Portal (2017b). Khorgos, where East meets West. -- https://eng.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/p/16154.html.
  9. Belt and Road Portal (2023a). Silk Road economic belt. -- https://eng.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/p/0PPN0HMN.html.
  10. Belt and Road Portal (2023b). About 21st century maritime Silk Road. -- https://eng.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/p/0H647R18.html.
  11. Birimkulova, G., Tubysheva, A., Abzhapparova, B. (2024). Features of strategic partnership and diplomacy of the People’s Republic of China in Central Asia. Kazakhstan Oriental Studies, 12(4), 177-189. Doi: 10.63051/kos.2024.4.177.
  12. Bureau of National statistics of Agency for Strategic planning and reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2025). Foreign trade turnover of the Republic of Kazakhstan (January-December 2024). -- https://stat.gov.kz/en/industries/ economy/foreign-market/publications/315588/.
  13. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (2024). How local realities compelled China to adapt its soft-power strategy in Kazakhstan. -- https://carnegieendowment.org/posts/ 2024/09/kazakhstan-china-soft-power-adaptation?lang=en.
  14. Centre for European Reform (2017). The EU, the Eurasian Economic Union and One Belt, One Road: Can they work together? -- https://www.cer.eu/publications/archive/policy-brief/2017/eu-eurasian-economic-union-and-one-belt-one-road-can-they.
  15. Centre for Strategic & International Studies (CSIS) (2018). Game of loans: How China bought Hambantota. -- https://www.csis.org/analysis/game-loans-how-china-bought-hambantota.
  16. ChinaPower (2020). Does China dominate global investment? -- https://chinapower.csis.org/china-foreign-direct-investment/.
  17. Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia (2021). CICA rules of procedure. -- https://www.s-cica.org/docs/14684815766284cc7d91252.pdf.
  18. Council on Foreign Relations (2023). China’s massive belt and road initiative. -- https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-massive-belt-and-road-initiative.
  19. Duysen, G., Aitzhanova, D. (2024). Assessing the key factors for development in Central Asia in deepening cooperation and overcoming challenges. Bulletin of Ablai Khan KazUIR and WL Series “International Relations and Regional Studies”, 56(2). – Doi: 10.48371/ISMO.2024.56.2.016.
  20. East Asia Forum (2020). China’s Djibouti naval base increasing its power. -- https://eastasiaforum.org/2020/05/16/chinas-djibouti-naval-base-increasing-its-power/.
  21. Ernst & Young Global Limited (2021). Overview of China outbound investment of 2020. -- https://www.ey.com/en_cn/insights/china-overseas-investment-network/overview-of-china-outbound-investment-of-2020.
  22. Eurasia (2025). China enhances position as Central Asia’s economic overlord: Trade balance heavily favors Beijing. -- https://eurasianet.org/china-enhances-position-as-central-asias-economic-overlord.
  23. Gunasekara, S. (2024). Bandwagoning, balancing, and small states: A case of Sri Lanka. Asian Social Science, 11(28), 212. Doi: 10.5539/ass.v11n28p212.
  24. Han, Z., Papa, M. (2020). Alliances in Chinese international relations: Are they ending or rejuvenating?. Asian Security, 17(2), 158-177. Doi: 10.1080/14799855.2020.1825380.
  25. Hasanov, R., Kazimova, A., Mammadova, A., Salahov, R., Vasa L. (2025). Causal relationship between renewable energy consumption and manufacturing value added: Evidence from Kazakhstan. Environmental Economics, 16(2), 26-35. Doi: 10.21511/ee.16(2).2025.03.
  26. Himmer, M., Rod, Z. (2022). Chinese debt trap diplomacy: Reality or myth?. Journal of the Indian Ocean Region, 18(3), 250-272.
  27. Hu, X., Zhang, W., Zhang, Sh., Hao, Y., Cong, J. (2025). The impacts of the global energy transition on China's energy security in the long-term: Heterogeneous evidence from the supply and consumption sides. Renewable Energy, 255, 123784. Doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2025.123784.
  28. Işık, C., Yan, J., Ongan, S. (2025). Energy intensity, supply chain digitization, technological progress bias in China's industrial sectors. Energy Economics, 145, 108442. Doi: 10.1016/j.eneco.2025.108442.
  29. Karabalaeva, G., Osmonova, D., Baitokova, A., Golov, A., Kaskarbayeva, Z. (2025). Contemporary Trends in the Development of the Religious Consciousness of the Peoples of Central Asia. Pharos Journal of Theology, 106(3), 01-14. Doi: 10.46222/pharosjot.106.3019.
  30. Kastner, S.L., Pearson, M.M. (2021). Exploring the parameters of China’s economic influence. Studies in Comparative International Development, 56(1), 18-44. Doi: 10.1007/s12116-021-09318-9.
  31. Kazinform International News Agency (2025). Kazakhstan-China commodity turnover reaches USD 43.8 bln. -- https://en.inform.kz/news/kazakhstan-china-commodity-turnover-reaches-usd-438-bln-4a1b1a/.
  32. Khamzin, A.S., Khamzina, Z.A., Buribayev, Y.A., Tileubergenov, Y.M., Ibraimov, D.A., Yermekov, A.T. (2016). International legal aspects of exercising refugees’ rights in Central Asia. Journal of Advanced Research in Law and Economics, 7(4), 835-841. Doi: 10.14505/jarle.v7.4(18).15.
  33. Khan, K.A., Subhan, M., Tiwari, S., Anser, M.K., Destek, M.A. (2025). Impacts of natural resources and technological innovation on SDG achievement of OECD countries: How does democracy and globalization behave?. Technology in Society, 81, 102778.
  34. Koçak, M., Yeşilçimen, G. (2024). Kazakhstan’s anti-China protests: Implications for the Belt and Road Initiative in Central Asia. Alternatif Politika, 16(3), 417-440. Doi: 10.53376/ap.2024.15.
  35. Kozhirova, S., Batyrbayev, K., Li, J. (2024). Cooperation of China with the countries of Central Asia within the framework of Chinese global initiatives. Journal of Central Asian Studies, 94(2), 4-22. Doi: 10.52536/3006-807X.2024-2.01.
  36. Krechko, O., Mikhaylov, A. (2025). Global electricity generation from renewable sources using fuzzy sets and spatial analysis: revolution in solar and wind energy in BRICS countries. Quality and Quantity, 59(2), 1553-1571.
  37. Kulnazarov, R. (2024). New geopolitical role of Central Asia within foreign policy interests of world powers. Asian Social Science, 11(12), 125-130. Doi: 10.5539/ass.v11n12p125.
  38. Kushenova, G.I., Auanasova, A.M., Drozd, R. (2025). Islamist movement in the kazakh steppe: a historical analysis in global context. European Journal of Science and Theology, 21(2), 63-78.
  39. Lalwani, S.P. (2023). A threshold alliance: The China-Pakistan military relationship. Washington: United States Institute of Peace. -- https://flinders.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay/alma997338984601771/61FUL_INST:FUL.
  40. Lee, B.T.F., Bettani, S.A., Sims, J.P. (2024). Rise of China: Hegemony or harmony?. Chinese Political Science Review, 9(3), 381-417. Doi: 10.1007/s41111-024-00253-3.
  41. Lim, D.J., Ikenberry, G.J. (2023). China and the logic of illiberal hegemony. Security Studies, 32(1), 1-31. Doi: 10.1080/09636412.2023.2178963.
  42. Musarova, Z.A., Adamkulova, C.U. (2023). Geopolitics in the region: risks and prospects for ensuring food security in the Kyrgyz Republic. Proceedings on Engineering Sciences, 5(S2), 423-430. Doi: 10.24874/PES.SI.02.018.
  43. National Bureau of Statistics of China (2023). China’s direct investment flows to the world (US$ million). -- https://data.stats.gov.cn/easyquery.htm?cn=C01&zb= A06050304&sj=2023.
  44. Nurekenova, E.S., Rakhimberdinova, M.U., Sholpanbayeva, K.Zh., Apysheva, A.A., Shaikhanova, N.K. (2022). Assessment of the economic efficiency of industrial enterprise management during the Kazakhstan integration into the EAEU. Polish Journal of Management Studies, 26(1), 233-249.
  45. Nyshanbayev, N., Bekov, K., Baizakova, Z., Amangeldy, A. (2024). The Republic of Kazakhstan’s multi-vector foreign policy. New Perspectives, 33(1), 43-63. Doi: 10.1177/2336825X241308432.
  46. OECtoday (2025). China-Kazakhstan trade. -- https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-country/chn/partner/kaz.
  47. Official Information Source of the Prime minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2023). Kazakhstan and China have concluded 16 bilateral documents. -- https://primeminister.kz/ru/news/kazakhstan-i-kitay-zaklyuchili-16-dvustoronnikh-dokumentov-23507.
  48. Omarova, Z. (2025). Bilateral trade turnover between Kazakhstan and China reaches $43.8 billion. The Astana Times. -- https://astanatimes.com/2025/01/bilateral-trade-turnover-between-kazakhstan-and-china-reaches-43-8-billion/.
  49. Park, J., Adibayeva, A. (2023). Introduction: Regionalism for Central Asian studies. In: Regionalism and Regional Security in Central Asia (pp. 1-41). Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan. Doi: 10.1007/978-981-99-4079-0_1.
  50. Peter, Z. (2024). Hefty debt to China stokes soaring inflation in Laos. Voice of America. -- https://www.voanews.com/a/hefty-debt-to-china-stokes-soaring-inflation-in-laos-/7885926.html.
  51. Sarybaev, M., Lai, C. (2024). Evaluation of China’s current investment projects in Kazakhstan: Opportunities and challenges. Public Administration and Public Service, 2(89), 115-125. Doi: 10.52123/1994-2370-2024-1172.
  52. Speech by the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan N.A. Nazarbayev at the 47th Session of the UN General Assembly (1992). -- https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=30006963&pos=3;-88#pos=3;-88.
  53. Statista (2025a). China’s share of global gross domestic product (GDP) adjusted for purchasing-power-parity (PPP) from 1980 to 2024 with forecasts until 2030. -- https://www.statista.com/statistics/270439/chinas-share-of-global-gross-domestic-product-gdp/.
  54. Statista (2025b). The 20 countries with the largest gross domestic product (GDP) in 2024. -- https://www.statista.com/statistics/268173/countries-with-the-largest-gross-domestic-product-gdp/.
  55. Sun, Y., Lu, Z., Bao, Q., Li, Y., Li, H. (2022). The Belt & Road Initiative and the public and private debts of participating countries: The role of China’s economic policy uncertainty. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 60, 179-193.
  56. Szalai, M. (2025). Smaller Gulf states and competing geopolitical scripts in the Indo-Pacific. International Politics. Doi: 10.1057/s41311-024-00660-y.
  57. Trading Economics (2025a). China imports from Kazakhstan. -- https://tradingeconomics.com/china/imports/kazakhstan.
  58. Trading Economics (2025b). Kazakhstan imports from China. -- https://tradingeconomics.com/kazakhstan/imports/china#:~:text=Kazakhstan%20Imports%20from%20China%20was,COMTRADE%20database%20on%20international%20trade.
  59. Trains-Caspian International Transport Route (TITR) (2023). Charter of the Trans-Caspian International Transport Route Association. -- https://middlecorridor.com/images/docs/%D0%A3%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2_Charter.pdf.
  60. Turtugulova, D.M., Seilkhan, B., Akimova, Z.B. (2024). Kazakhstan as a center of gravity in Central Asia in the clash between the USA and China. Bulletin of L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University. Political Science. Regional Studies. Oriental Studies. Turkology Series, 150(1), 120-134.
  61. United Nation (UN) (2017). The role of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization in counteracting threats to peace and security. -- https://www.un.org/en/chronicle /article/role-shanghai-cooperation-organization-counteracting-threats-peace-and-security.
  62. United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) (2018). 120 Kazakh troops join UNIFIL. -- https://unifil.unmissions.org/120-kazakh-troops-join-unifil.
  63. World Bank Group (2025). Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (current US$) – China. -- https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=CN.
  64. Zhang, B., Nadyrov, S. and Stepanov, A. (2024). China’s Impact on Sustainable Economic Growth in Central Asian Countries in the Context of the Silk Road Economic Belt. REGION, 11(2), 27-41. Doi: 10.18335/region.v11i2.527.
  65. Zhetpisbayev, B.A., Baisalova, G.T., Shadiyev, K.K., Khamzin, A.S., Buribayev, Y.A., Khamzina, Z.A. (2017). Legal support of the process of Kazakhstan accession to the OECD: Potential for improving quality of individual’s labour rights regulation. Journal of Advanced Research in Law and Economics, 8(7), 2302-2307. Doi: 10.14505//jarle.v8.7(29).31.
  66. Zreik, M. (2022). Contemporary geopolitics of Eurasia and the Belt and Road Initiative. Eurasian Research Journal, 4(1), 7-26.