Salta al menu principale di navigazione Salta al contenuto principale Salta al piè di pagina del sito
Ricerche di Psicologia/Psychological Research Journal - Open Access

Articoli

N. 3 (2022)

Dal trauma alla resilienza: una ricerca sull’expressive writing con giovani adulti

DOI
https://doi.org/10.3280/rip2022oa14729
Inviata
4 ottobre 2022
Pubblicato
17-10-2022

Abstract

Il trauma è una “ferita dell’anima”, un’esperienza destabilizzante rispetto alla consuetudine, che disorganizza la mente di chi lo vive. I ricordi non trattati di un trauma sono spesso frammentati, disorganizzati e possono essere facilmente attivati sotto forma di pensieri intrusivi per cui i soggetti traumatizzati sperimentano varie forme di disagio psicologico. L’intervento di scrittura espressiva si è dimostrato essere un valido strumento come supporto nelle situazioni di stress evidenziando un generalizzato effetto positivo sulla salute. La scrittura espressiva, traducendo i pensieri e le emozioni traumatiche in linguaggio, aiuta i soggetti traumatizzati a dare un senso agli eventi sconvolgenti, a gestire le emozioni negative e migliora le loro connessioni con il mondo sociale.

Questa ricerca si è posta l’obiettivo di verificare l’effetto di un protocollo di scrittura espressiva in un contesto non clinico, rappresentato da un campione di giovani adulti studenti universitari ed in particolare, ha inteso studiare gli effetti della scrittura espressiva nel mitigare eventuali problematiche psicologiche legate a eventi stressanti e/o traumatici.
I risultati hanno confermato una discreta efficacia del protocollo di scrittura espressiva soprattutto nel sostenere un potenziamento delle risorse di coping personali e di adattamento rispetto agli esiti degli eventi stressanti vissuti.

Riferimenti bibliografici

  1. Aten, J. D., O’Grady, K. A., Milstein, G., Boan, D. & Schruba, A. (2014). Spiritually oriented disaster psychology. Spirituality in Clinical Practice, 1(1), 20-28. DOI: 10.1037/scp0000008.
  2. Baikie, K. A. & Wilhelm, K. (2005). Emotional and physical health benefits of expressive writing. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 11, 338-346. DOI: 10.1192/apt.11.5.338.
  3. Barton, S., Boals A. & Knowles, L. (2013) Thinking about trauma: the unique contributions of event centrality and posttraumatic cognitions in predicting PTSD and posttraumatic growth. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 718-726. DOI: 10.1002/jts.21863.
  4. Berman, S. L. (2016). Identity and trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress Disorders & Treatment, 5(2), 1-3. DOI: 10.4172/2324-8947.1000E108.
  5. Berman, S. L., Weems, C. F. & Petkus, V. (2009). The prevalence and incremental validity of identity problem symptoms in a high school sample. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 40(2), 183-195. DOI: 10.1007/s10578-008-0117-6.
  6. Bernstein, D. P., Ahluvalia, T., Pogge, D. & Handelsman, L. (1997). Validity of the childhood trauma questionnaire in an adolescent psychiatric population. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(3), 340-348. DOI: 10.1097/00004583-199703000-00012.
  7. Berntsen, D. & Rubin, D. C. (2006). The centrality of event scale: A measure of integrating a trauma into oneʼs identity and its relation to post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(2), 219-231. DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2005.01.009.
  8. Blix, I., Solberg, Ø. & Heir, T. (2014). Centrality of event and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder after the 2011 Oslo bombing attack. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 28, 249-253. DOI: 10.1002/acp.2988.
  9. Boals, A. & Klein, K. (2005). Word use in emotional narratives about failed romantic relationships and subsequent mental health. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 24, 252-268. DOI: 10.1177/0261927X05278386.
  10. Boals, A. (2012). The use of meaning making in expressive writing: When meaning is beneficial. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 31(4), 393-409. DOI: 10.1521/jscp.2012.31.4.393.
  11. Bohleber, W. (2007). Ricordo, trauma e memoria collettiva. La battaglia per il ricordo in psicoanalisi [Remembrance, trauma and collective memory: The battle for memory in psychoanalysis]. Rivista di Psicoanalisi, 53(2), 367-394.
  12. Bombay, A., Matheson, K. & Anisman, H. (2014). Appraisals of discriminatoryevents among adult offspring of Indian residential school survivors: the influences of identity centrality and past perceptions of discrimination. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20(1), 75-86. DOI: 10.1037/a0033352.
  13. Booker, J. A., & Dunsmore, J. C. (2017). Expressive writing and well-being during the transition to college: Comparison of emotion-disclosing and gratitude-focused writing. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 36(7), 580. DOI: 101521/jscp2017367580.
  14. Bourassa, K. J., Allen, J. J. B., Mehl, M. R. & Sbarra, D. A. (2017). The Impact of Narrative Expressive Writing on Heart Rate, Heart Rate Variability, and Blood Pressure Following Marital Separation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 79(6), 697-705. DOI: 10.1097/PSY.0000000000000475.
  15. Boykin, D. M., Anyanwu, J., Calvin, K. & Orcutt, H. K. (2020). The moderating effect of psychological flexibility on event centrality in determining trauma outcomes. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(2), 193-199. DOI: 10.1037/tra0000490.
  16. Braganza, D. & Piedmont, R. L. (2015). The impact of the core transformation process on spirituality, symptom experience, and psychological maturity in a mixed age sample in India: a pilot study. Journal of Religion of Health, 54, 888-902. DOI: 10.1007/s10943-015-0049-y.
  17. Brewin, C. R. (2001). Memory processes in post-traumatic stress disorder. International Review of Psychiatry, 13(3), 159-163. DOI: 10.1080/09540260120074019.
  18. Broderick, J. E., Junghaenel, D. U. & Schwartz, J. E. (2005). Written Emotional Expression Produces Health Benefits in Fibromyalgia Patients. Psychosomatic Medicine, 67, 326-34. DOI: 10.1097/01.psy.0000156933.04566.bd.
  19. Brown, A. D., Antonius, D., Kramer, M., Root, J. C. & Hirst, W. (2010). Trauma centrality and PTSD in veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2 3(4), 496-499. DOI: 10.1002/jts.20547.
  20. Carmil, D. & Breznitz, S. (1991) Personal trauma and world view: Are extremely stressful experiences related to political attitudes, religious beliefs, and future orientation? Journal of Traumatic Stress, 4(3), 393-405. DOI: 10.1002/jts.2490040307.
  21. Chen, Y. Y. & Contrada, R. J. (2009). Framing Written Emotional Expression from a Religious Perspective: Effects on Depressive Symptoms. The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 39(4), 427-438. DOI: 10.2190/PM.39.4.g.
  22. Cheung, R. Y., Chung, H. S., & Ng, M. C. (2021). Expressive writing and wellbeing in Chinese emerging adults: Is emotion regulation an underlying mechanism?. Emerging Adulthood, 9(6), 679-689. DOI: 10.1177/2167696818824719.
  23. Cooper, C. L. & Faragher, E. B. (1993). Psychosocial stress and breast cancer. The interrelationship between stress events, coping strategies and personality. Psychological Medicine, 23(3), 653-662. DOI: 10.1017/S0033291700025435.
  24. Creech, S. K., Smith, J., Grimes J. S. & Meagher, M. W. (2011). Written emotional disclosure of trauma and trauma history alter pain sensitivity. The Journal of Pain, 12(7), 801-810. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2011.01.007.
  25. Dalgleish, T. (2004). Cognitive approaches to posttraumatic stress disorder: The evolution of multirepresentational theorizing. Psychological Bulletin, 130(2), 228-260. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.130.2.228.
  26. De Moor, E. L., Van der Graaff, J., Van Dijk, M. P. A., Meeus, W. & Branje, S. (2019). Stressful life events and identity development in early and midadolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 76, 75-87. DOI: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.08.006.
  27. Di Blasio, P., Camisasca, E., Caravita, S. C. S., Ionio, C., Milani, L. & Valtolina, G. G. (2015). The effects of expressive writing on postpartum depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Psychological reports, 117(3), 856-882. DOI: 10.2466/02.13.PR0.117c29z3.
  28. Di Blasio, P., Miragoli, S. & Procaccia, R. (2012). The role of PTSD in understanding child allegation of sexual abuse. In V. Ardino (Ed.), Post-traumatic syndromes in childhood and adolescence: A handbook of research and practice (pp. 177-198). London: Wiley and Sons Publications.
  29. East, P., Startup, H., Roberts, C., & Schmidt, U. (2010). Expressive writing and eating disorder features: A preliminary trial in a student sample of the impact of three writing tasks on eating disorder symptoms and associated cognitive, affective and interpersonal factors. European Eating Disorders Review: The Professional Journal of the Eating Disorders Association, 18(3), 180-196.
  30. Ehlers, A. & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavior Research and Therapy, 38(4), 319-345. DOI: 10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00123-0.
  31. Emmerik, A. A., Reijntjes, A. & Kamphuis, J. H. (2013). Writing Therapy for Posttraumatic Stress: A Meta-Analysis. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 82(2), 82-88. DOI: 10.1159/000343131.
  32. Epstein, E. M., Sloan, D. M. & Marx, B. P. (2005). Getting to the heart of the matter: Written disclosure, gender, and heart rate. Psychosomatic Medicine, 67, 413-419. DOI: 10.1097/01.psy.0000160474.82170.7b.
  33. Esterling, B. A., L’Abate, L., Murray, E. J. & Pennebaker J. W. (1999). Empirical foundations for writing in prevention and psychotherapy: Mental and physical health outcomes. Clinical Psychology Review, 19(1), 79-96. DOI: 10.1016/s0272-7358(98)00015-4.
  34. Exline, J. J., Smyth, J. M., Gregory, J., Hockeemeyer, J. & Tulloch, H. (2005). Religious framing by individuals with PTSD when writing about traumatic experiences. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15(1), 17-33. DOI: 10.1207/s15327582ijpr1501_2.
  35. Fernandez, I., Maslovaric, G. & Veniero Galvagni, M. (2013). Traumi Psicologici, Ferite dell’Anima: Il Contributo della Terapia con EMDR [Psychological trauma, wounds of the soul: The contribution of EMDR therapy]. Napoli: Liguori.
  36. Fitzgerald, J. M., Berntsen, D. & Broadbridge, C. L. (2015). The influences of event centrality in memory models of PTSD. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 30(1), 10-21. DOI: 10.1002/acp.3160.
  37. Foa, E. B. & Rothbaum, B. O. (1998). Treating the trauma of rape: Cognitive behavioral therapy for PTSD. New York: Guilford Press.
  38. Foa, E. B., Molnar, C. & Cashman, L. (1995). Changes in rape narratives during exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 675-690. DOI: 10.1007/BF02102894.
  39. Frattaroli, J. (2006). Experimental disclosure and its moderators: A metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 823-865. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.823.
  40. Frisina, P. G., Borod, J. C. & Lepore, S. J. (2004). A meta-analysis of the effects of written emotional disclosure on the health outcomes of clinical populations. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 192(9), 629-634. DOI: 10.1097/01.nmd.0000138317.30764.63.
  41. García-Oliva, C. & Piqueras, J. A. (2016). Experiential avoidance and technological addictions in adolescents. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 5(2), 293-303. DOI: 10.1556/2006.5.2016.041.
  42. George, L. S., Park, C. L. & Chaudoir, S. R. (2016). Examining the relationship between trauma centrality and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: A moderated mediation approach. Traumatology, 22(2), 85-93. DOI: 10.1037/trm0000063.
  43. Ghisi, M., Flebus, G.B., Montano, A., Sanavio, E., & Sica, C. (2006). Beck Depression Inventory-II. Manuale italiano. Firenze: Organizzazioni
  44. Speciali.
  45. Giordano, F., Ragnoli, F., Bruno, F. B. & Boerchi, D. (2019). Testing Assisted Resilience Approach Therapy (ARAT) with children victims of violence. Children and Youth Services Review, 96, 286-293. DOI: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.11.050.
  46. Gortner, E. M., Rude, S. S. & Pennebaker, J. W. (2006). Benefits of expressive writing in lowering rumination and depressive symptoms. Behavior Therapy, 37(3), 292-303. DOI: 10.1016/j.beth.2006.01.004.
  47. Guler, J. (2014). The relationship among previous exposure to war and conflict, acculturation, and identity formation among adolescent refugees. USA: University of Central Florida.
  48. Harber, K. D. & Pennebaker, J. W. (1992). Overcoming traumatic memories. In: S.-A. Christianson (Ed.), The Handbook of Emotion and Memory: Research and Theory (pp. 359-387). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  49. Harris, J. I., Erbes, C. R., Engdahl, B. E., Thuras, P., Murray-Swank, N., Grace, D., Ogden, H., Olson, R. H. A., Winskowski, A. M., Bacon, R., Malec, C., Campion, K. & Le, T. (2011). The effectiveness of a trauma focused spiritually integrated intervention for veterans exposed to trauma. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67(4), 425-438. DOI: 10.1002/jclp.20777.
  50. Horowitz, M. J. (1986). Stress response syndromes (2nd ed.). Northvale, N.J.: Jason Aronson.
  51. Ionio, C., Mascheroni, E. & Di Blasio, P. (2018). Psychometric properties of the Centrality of Event Scale in Italian adolescents. Maltrattamento e Abuso all’Infanzia, 20, 67-79. DOI: 10.3280/MAL2018-001005.
  52. Kessler, R. C., Petukhova, M., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M. & Wittchen, H. U. (2012). Twelve-month and lifetime prevalence and lifetime morbid risk of anxiety and mood disorders in the United States. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 21(3), 169-184. DOI: 10.1002/mpr.1359.
  53. Khursheed, M. & Shahnawaz, M. G. (2020). Trauma and post-traumatic growth: spirituality and self-compassion as mediators among parents who lost their young children in a protracted conflict. Journal of Religion of Health. DOI: 10.1007/ s10943-020-00980-2.
  54. Kim, Y. & Seidlitz, L. (2002). Spirituality moderates the effect of stress on emotional and physical adjustment. Personality & Individual Differences, 32(8), 1377-1390. DOI: 10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00128-3.
  55. King, L. A. & Miner, K. N. (2000). Writing about the perceived benefits of traumatic events: Implications for physical health. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(2), 220-230. DOI: 10.1177/0146167200264008.
  56. King, M., Marston, L., McManus, S., Brugha, T., Meltzer, H. & Bebbington, P. (2013). Religion, spirituality and mental health: results from a national study of English households. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 202, 68-73. DOI: 10.1192/bjp. bp.112.112003.
  57. Klein, K. & Boals, A. (2001). Expressive writing can increase working memory capacity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130(3), 520-533. DOI: 10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.520.
  58. Kliewer, W., Lepore, S. J., Oskin, D., & Johnson, P. D. (1998). The role of social and cognitive processes in children’s adjustment to community violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(1), 199-209. DOI: 10.1037/0022-006X.66.1.199.
  59. Kovac, S. H. & Range, L. M. (2011). Does Writing About Suicidal Thoughts and Feelings Reduce Them? Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 32(4), 428-440. DOI: 10.1521/suli.32.4.428.22335.
  60. Kramer, L. B., Whiteman, S. E., Witte, T. K., Silverstein, M. W. & Weathers, F. W. (2019). From trauma to growth: The roles of event centrality, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and deliberate rumination. Traumatology, 26(2), 152-159. DOI: 10.1037/trm0000214.
  61. Krpan, K. M., Kross, E., Berman, M. G., Deldin, P. J., Askren, M. K. & Jonides, J. (2013). An everyday activity as a treatment for depression: the benefits of expressive writing for people diagnosed with major depressive disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 150, 1148-1151. DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2013.05.065.
  62. Lepore, S. J. & Greenberg, M. A. (2002). Mending broken hearts: Effects of expressive writing on mood, cognitive processing, social adjustment and health following a relationship breakup. Psychology and Health, 17, 547-560. DOI: 10.1080/08870440290025768.
  63. Lepore, S. J. & Helgeson, V. S. (1998). Social constraints, intrusive thoughts, and mental health after prostate cancer. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 17(1), 89-106. DOI: 10.1521/jscp.1998.17.1.89.
  64. Lepore, S. J. (1997). Expressive writing moderates the relation between intrusive thoughts and depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1030-1037. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.73.5.1030.
  65. Lepore, S. J. (2001). A social-cognitive processing model of emotional adjustment to cancer. In: A. Baum & B. Andersen (Eds.), Psychosocial interventions for cancer (pp. 99-118). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
  66. Lepore, S. J., Greenberg, M. A., Bruno, M. & Smyth, J. M. (2002). Expressive writing and health: Self-regulation of emotion-related experience, physiology, and behavior. In: S. J. Lepore & Smyth J. M. (Eds.), The writing cure: How expressive writing promotes health and emotional well-being (pp. 99-117). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. DOI: 10.1037/10451-005.
  67. Lepore, S. J., Ragan, J. D. & Jones, S. (2000). Talking facilitates cognitive emotional processes of adaptation to an acute stressor. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 499-508. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.78.3.499.
  68. Lepore, S. J., Silver, R. C., Wortman, C. B. & Wayment, H. A. (1996). Social constraints, intrusive thoughts, and depressive symptoms among bereaved mothers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 271-282. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.271.
  69. Levitt, J. T., Brown, T. A., Orsillo, S. M. & Barlow, D. H. (2004). The effects of acceptance versus suppression of emotion on subjective and psychophysiological response to carbon dioxide challenge in patients with panic disorder. Behavior Therapy, 35(4), 747-766. DOI: 10.1016/S0005-7894(04)80018-2.
  70. Low, C. A., Stanton, A. L. & Danoff-Burg, S. (2006). Expressive disclosure and benefit finding among breast cancer patients: mechanisms for positive health effects. Health Psychology, 25, 181-189. DOI: 10.1037/0278-6133.25.2.181.
  71. Manier, D. & Olivares, A. (2005). Who benefits from expressive writing? Moderator variables affecting outcomes of emotional disclosure interventions. Counseling and Clinical Psychology Journal, 2(1), 15-28.
  72. Marcus, P. H. (2017). Getting write into therapy. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(5), 367-368. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2017.01.020.
  73. Marx, B. P. & Sloan, D. M. (2005). Peritraumatic dissociation and experiential avoidance as predictors of posttraumatic stress symptomatology. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 569-583. DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2004.04.004.
  74. Miragoli, S., Camisasca, E. & Di Blasio, P. (2017). Narrative fragmentation in child sexual abuse: The role of age and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Child Abuse & Neglect, 73C, 106-114. DOI: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.09.028.
  75. Miragoli, S., Camisasca, E. & Di Blasio, P. (2019). Investigating linguistic coherence relations in child sexual abuse: A comparison of PTSD and non-PTSD children. Helyion, 5(2), e01163. DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01163.
  76. Miragoli, S., Procaccia, R. & Di Blasio, P. (2014). Language use and PTSD symptoms: Content analyses of allegations of child sexual abuse. Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, 14(5), 355-382. DOI: 10.1080/15228932.2014.970423.
  77. Mogk, C., Otte, S., Reinhold-Hurley, B. & Kröner-Herwig, B. (2006). Health effects of expressive writing on stressful or traumatic experiences - a metaanalysis. Psycho-social medicine, 3(Doc06), 1-9.
  78. Morris, B. A., Campbell, M., Dwyer, M., Dunn, J. & Chambers, S. K. (2011). Survivor identity and post-traumatic growth after participating in challengebased peersupport programmes. British Journal of Health Psychology, 16(3), 660-674. DOI: 10.1348/2044-8287.002004.
  79. Mosher, D. K., Hook, J. N., Captari, L. E., Hodge, A. S., Bellegarde, N., Davis, D. E., McElroy-Heltzel, S. E., Choe, E. J., Van Tongeren, D. R., Davis, E. B. & Aten, J. D. (2021). Spiritually Oriented Expressive Writing and Promoting Positive Outcomes After a Natural Disaster. The Counseling Psychologist, 49(6): 847-881. DOI: 10.1177/00110000211010499.
  80. Muldoon, O. T., Haslam, S. A., Haslam, C., Cruwys, T., Kearns, M. & Jetten, J. (2019). The social psychology of responses to trauma: social identity pathways associated with divergent traumatic responses. European Review of Social Psychology, 30, 311-348. DOI: 10.1080/10463283.2020.1711628.
  81. National Collaborating Center for Mental Health 2005. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: the Management of PTSD in Adults and Children in Primary and Secondary Care. Gaskell.
  82. Niles, A. N., Haltom, K. E., Mulvenna, C. M., Lieberman, M. D. & Stanton, A. L. (2013). Randomized controlled trial of expressive writing for psychological and physical health: the moderating role of emotional expressivity. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 27(1), 1-17. DOI: 10.1080/10615806.2013.802308.
  83. Norman, S., Lumley, M., Dooley, J. & Diamond, M. (2004). For whom does it work? Moderators of the effects of written emotional disclosure in a randomized trial among women with chronic pelvic pain. Psychosomatic Medicine, 66(2), 174-83. DOI: 10.1097/01.psy.0000116979.77753.74.
  84. Park, C. L. & Blumberg, C. J. (2002). Disclosing trauma through writing: testing the meaning-making hypothesis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26(5), 597-616. DOI: 10.1023/a:1020353109229.
  85. Park, D., Ramirez, G. & Beilock, S. L. (2014). The role of expressive writing in math anxiety. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 20(2), 103-111. DOI: 10.1037/xap0000013.
  86. Patrick, J. H. & Kinney, J. M. (2003). Why believe? The effects of religious beliefs on emotional well-being. Journal of Religious Gerontology, 14(2-3), 153-170. DOI: 10.1300/J078v14n02_05.
  87. Pennebaker, J. W. & Beall, S. K. (1986). Confronting a traumatic event: toward an understanding of inhibition and disease. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95(3), 274-281. DOI: 10.1037/0021-843X.95.3.274.
  88. Pennebaker, J. W. & Chung, C. K. (2011). Expressive writing: Connections to physical and mental health. In: H.S. Friedman (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of health psychology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195342819.013.0018.
  89. Pennebaker, J. W. & Francis, M. E. (1996). Cognitive, emotional, and language processes in disclosure. Cognition and Emotion, 10(6), 601-626. DOI: 10.1080/026999396380079.
  90. Pennebaker, J. W. & O’Heeron, R. (1984). Confiding in others and illness rates among spouses of suicide and accidental death victims. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93, 473-476. DOI: 10.1037/0021-843X.93.4.473.
  91. Pennebaker, J. W. & Seagal, J. D. (1999). Forming a story: The health benefits of narrative. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55(10), 1243-1254. DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199910)55:10<1243::AID-JCLP6>3.0.CO;2-N.
  92. Pennebaker, J. W. (1985). Traumatic experience and psychosomatic disease: Exploring the roles of behavioural inhibition, obsession, and confiding. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, 26(2), 82-95. DOI: 10.1037/H0080025.
  93. Pennebaker, J. W. (1993). Putting stress into words: health, linguistic and therapeutic implications. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31(6), 539-548. DOI: 10.1016/0005-7967(93)90105-4.
  94. Pennebaker, J. W. (1997). Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process. Psychological Science, 8(3), 162-166. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00403.x.
  95. Pennebaker, J. W. (2004a). Writing to Heal: A Guided Journal for Recovering from Trauma and Emotional Upheaval. Oakland: New Harbinger Publications.
  96. Pennebaker, J. W. (2004b). Theories, therapies, and taxpayers. On the complexities of the expressive writing paradigm. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(2), 138-142. DOI: 10.1093/clipsy.bph063.
  97. Pennebaker, J. W. and Chung, C. K. (2007). Expressive Writing, Emotional Upheavals, and Health. In H. S. Friedman & R. C. Silver (Eds), Foundations of health psychology (pp. 263-284). Oxford: University Press.
  98. Pennebaker, J. W., Barger, S. D. & Tiebout, J. (1989). Disclosure of traumas and health among Holocaust survivors. Psychosomatic Medicine, 51(5), 577-589. DOI: 10.1097/00006842-198909000-00009.
  99. Pennebaker, J. W., Colder, M. & Sharp, L. K. (1990). Accelerating the coping process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 528-537. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.58.3.528.
  100. Petrie, K. J., Fontanilla, I., Thomas, M. G., Booth, R. J. & Pennebacker, J. W. (2004). Effect of written emotional expression on immune function in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection: a randomized trial. Psychosomatic Medicine, 66(2), 272-275. DOI: 10.1097/01.psy.0000116782.49850.d3.
  101. Reinhold, M., Burkner, P. C. & Holling, H. (2018). Effects of expressive writing on depressive symptoms-A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 25(1), e12224. DOI: 10.1111/cpsp.12224.
  102. Sandole, D. H. & Auerbach, C. F. (2013). Dissociation and identity transformation in female survivors of the genocide against the tutsi in Rwanda: A qualitative research study. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 14(2), 127-137. DOI: 10.1080/15299732.2013.724345.
  103. Schoutrop, M. J. A., Lange, A., Hanewald, G., Davidovich, U. & Salomon, H. (2002). Structured writing and processing major stressful events: A controlled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 71(3), 151-157. DOI: 10.1159/000056282.
  104. Shalka, T. R. (2019). Saplings in the hurricane: a grounded theory of college trauma and identity development. Review of Higher Education, 42, 739-764. DOI: 10.1353/rhe.2019.001313.
  105. Sica, C., Magni, C., Ghisi, M., Altoé, G., Sighinolfi, C., Chiri, L. R., & Franceschini, S. (2008). Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced – Nuova Versione Italiana (COPE- NVI): uno strumento per la misura degli stili di coping. Psicoterapia Cognitiva e Comportamentale, 14(1), 27-53.
  106. Sigamoney, J. (2018). Resilience of somali migrants: religion and spirituality among migrants in Johannesburg. Alternation Journal, 22, 81-102. DOI: 10.29086/2519-5476/2018/sp22a5.
  107. Simkin, H. (2020). The Centrality of Events, Religion, Spirituality, and Subjective Well-Being in Latin American Jewish Immigrants in Israel. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(September), 1-8. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.576402.
  108. Sloan, D. M. & Marx, B. P. (2017). On the implementation of Written Exposure Therapy (WET) with veterans diagnosed with PTSD. Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy, 13, 154-164. DOI: 10.14713/pcsp.v13i2.2005.
  109. Sloan, D. M. & Marx, B. P. (2018). Maximizing outcomes associated with expressive writing. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 25(2), e12231. DOI: 10.1111/cpsp.12231.
  110. Sloan, D. M. & Marx, B.P. (2004). A closer examination of the structured written disclosure procedure. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
  111. Psychology, 72(2): 165-175. DOI: 10.1037/0022-006X.72.2.165.
  112. Sloan, D. M., Marx, B. P. & Epstein, E. M. (2005). Further examination of the exposure model underlying the efficacy of written emotional disclosure. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 549-54. DOI: 10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.549.
  113. Smith, H. E., Jones C. J., Hankins M., Field A. P., Theadom A., Bowskill R. & Frew A. (2015). The effects of expressive writing on lung function, quality of life, medication use and symptoms in adults with asthma: a randomized controlled trial. Psychosomatic Medicine, 77, 429-37. DOI: 10.1097/PSY.0000000000000166.
  114. Smyth, J. & Helm, R. (2003). Focused expressive writing as self-help for stress and trauma. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59(2): 227-235. DOI: 10.1002/jclp.10144.
  115. Smyth, J. M. & Pennebaker, J. W. (1999). Sharing oneʼs story: translating emotional experiences into words as a coping tool. In C. R. Snyder (Ed.), Coping: The Psychology of What Works (pp. 70-89). New York: Oxford University Press.
  116. Smyth, J. M. (1998). Written emotional expression: Effect sizes, outcome types, and moderating variables. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(1): 174-184. DOI: 10.1037/0022-006X.66.1.174.
  117. Smyth, J. M., Stone, A. A., Hurewitz, A. & Kaell, A. (1999). Effects of writing about stressful experiences on symptom reduction in patients with asthma or rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 281, 1304-1309. DOI: 10.1001/jama.281.14.1304.
  118. Smyth, J., True N. and Souto N. (2001). Effects of writing about traumatic experiences: The necessity for narrative structuring. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20(2), 161-172. DOI: 10.1521/jscp.20.2.161.22266.
  119. Solano, L. (2013). Tra mente e corpo [Between mind and body] . Milano: Raffaello Cortina Editore.
  120. Soliday, E., Garofalo, J. P., & Rogers, D. (2004). Expressive writing intervention for adolescentsʼ somatic symptoms and mood. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33(4), 792-801. DOI: 10.1207/s15374424jccp3304_14.
  121. Stanton, A. L., Danoff-Burg S., Sworowski L. A., Collins C A., Branstetter A. D., Rodriguez-Hanley A., Kirk S. B. & Austenfeld J. L. (2002). Randomized, controlled trial of written emotional expression and benefit finding in breast cancer patients. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 20(20), 4160-4168. DOI: 10.1200/JCO.2002.08.521.
  122. Stroebe, M., Stroebe, W., Schut, H., Zech, E. & Van den Bout, J. (2002). Does disclosure of emotions facilitate recovery from bereavement? Evidence from two prospective studies. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 70(1), 169-178. DOI: 10.1037//0022-006X.70.1.169.
  123. Tay, A. K., Rees, S., Chen, J., Kareth, M. & Silove, D. (2015). Factorial structure of complicated grief: Associations with loss-related traumatic events and psychosocial impacts of mass conflict amongst west papuan refugees. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. DOI: 10.1007/s00127-015-1099-x.
  124. Temoshok, L. (1985). Biopsychosocial studies on cutaneous malignant melanoma: Psychosocial factors associated with prognostic indicators, progression, psychophysiology and tumor-host response. Social Science & Medicine, 20, 833-840. DOI: 10.1016/0277-9536(85)90338-7.
  125. Travagin, G., Margola, D. & Revenson, T. A. (2015). How effective are expressive writing interventions for adolescents? A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 36, 42-55. DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2015.01.003.
  126. van der Kolk, B. A. & Fisler, R. (1995). Dissociation and the fragmentary nature of traumatic memories: Overview and exploratory study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8(4), 505-525. DOI: 10.1007/BF02102887.
  127. Van der Kolk, B. A. & Fisler, R. (1995). Dissociation and the fragmentary nature of traumatic memories: Overview and exploratory study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8(4), 505-525.
  128. van Emmerik, A. A. P., Reijntjes, A. & Kamphuis, J. H. (2013). Writing therapy for posttraumatic stress: a meta-analysis. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 82(2), 82-88. DOI: 10.1159/000343131.
  129. Walker, D. F., Courtois, C. A. & Aten, J. D. (2015). Spiritually oriented psychotherapy for trauma. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
  130. Webermann, A. R., Maldonado, A., Singh, R., Torres, S., Bushee, S. & Murphy, C. M. (2019). Centrality of traumatic events and menʼs intimate partner violence perpetration. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. DOI: 10.1037/tra0000497.
  131. Zheng, Y. & Lawson, T. R. (2015). Identity reconstruction as shiduers: Narratives from Chinese older adults who lost their only child. International Journal of Social Welfare, 24(4), 399-406. DOI: 10.1111/ijsw.12139.
  132. Sitografia
  133. Evans, J. F. (2012). Scrittura espressiva: cosa c’è nella tua mente e nel tuo cuore? [Expressive writing: what’s in your mind and heart?]. Psychology Today. Consultato da https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/writeyourself-well/201208/expressive-writing.
  134. The Center for Treatment of Anxiety and Mood Disorders (CTAMD) (2017). What is trauma?. Consultato da https://centerforanxietydisorders.com/whatis-trauma/.

Metriche

Caricamento metriche ...